Time of exposure and assessment influence the mortality induced by insecticides against metabolic resistant mosquitoes.

BACKGROUND: Increasing metabolic resistance in malaria vector mosquitoes resulted in the development of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) with active ingredients (AI) that target them. Bioassays that accurately measure the mortality induced by these AIs on ITNs are needed. Mosquito metabolic enzyme expression follows a circadian rhythm. Thus, this study assessed (i) influence of the time of day of mosquito exposure and (ii) timing of assessment of mortality post exposure (24 and 72 h) to ITNs against vectors that are susceptible to pyrethroids and those with metabolic and knockdown resistance mechanisms. METHODS: Two cone bioassay experiments were conducted following World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Firstly, on ITNs incorporated with 2 g AI/kg of deltamethrin (DM) alone, or combined with 8 g AI/kg piperonyl butoxide (PBO) synergist, during the day (9:00-14:00 h) and repeated in the evening (18:00-20:00 h). This was followed by a confirmatory experiment during the afternoon (12:00-14:00 h) and repeated in the night (22:00-24:00 h) using mosquitoes unexposed or pre-exposed to PBO for 1 h before exposure to DM ITNs. Each net piece was tested with a minimum of eight cones per time (N = 24). The outcome was mortality after 24 h (M24) or 72 h (M72) of holding. RESULTS: The cone bioassays performed using metabolic resistant mosquitoes during the evening showed significantly lower M24 than those performed in the day for DM: odds ratio (OR) 0.14 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.06-0.30, p < 0.0001] and DM PBO [OR 0.29 (95% CI 0.18-0.49, p < 0.0001). M72 was higher than M24 for metabolic resistant mosquitoes exposed to DM [OR 1.44 (95% CI 1.09-1.88), p = 0.009] and DM PBO [OR 1.82 (95% CI 1.42-2.34), p < 0.0001]. An influence of hour of experiment and time of assessment was not observed for mosquitoes that had knockdown resistance or that were pyrethroid-susceptible. CONCLUSIONS: Time of day of experiment and hour of assessment of delayed mortality after exposure of mosquitoes are important considerations in evaluating insecticides that interact with mosquito metabolism to counter metabolic resistant mosquitoes. This is important when evaluating field-aged ITNs that may have lower concentrations of AI.

Insecticide-treated eave nets and window screens for malaria control in Chalinze district, Tanzania: a study protocol for a household randomised control trial.

BACKGROUND: Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have contributed to the reduction of malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, including Tanzania. However, they rely on daily user behaviour and high coverage which is difficult to maintain. Also, insecticide resistance among malaria vector mosquitoes is contributing to reduced efficacy of control tools. To overcome these problems, we propose to evaluate a new tool for house modification, the insecticide-treated eave nets (ITENs) in combination with insecticide-treated window screens (ITWS) incorporated with dual active ingredient (dual AI) for the control of malaria. METHODS: Four hundred and fifty (450) households with intact walls, open eaves without screens or nets on the windows in Chalinze district will be eligible and recruited upon written informed consent. The households will be randomly allocated into two arms: one with ITENs and ITWS installed and the other without. Malaria parasite detection using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) will be conducted shortly after the long rain (June/July, 2022) as the primary outcome and shortly after the short rain (January/February, 2022) as the secondary outcome. Other secondary outcomes include clinical malaria cases, and density of malaria vectors and nuisance after the short rain and long rain. In addition, surveys will be conducted in households with ITENs and ITWS to estimate the intervention's cost during installation, adverse effects one month after installation, and presence, fabric integrity and user acceptance six and twelve months after installation. Bioefficacy and chemical content will be evaluated twelve months after installation. DISCUSSION: ITENs and ITWS have been shown in Kenya to reduce indoor mosquito density. However, it is not known if indoor mosquito density reduction translates into reduction of malaria cases. Data from the study will measure the potential public health value of an additional intervention for malaria control at the household level in areas of mosquito insecticide resistance that does not require daily adherence. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study is registered on ClinicalTrials.gov .

Supplementary effect and durability of prototype insecticide-treated eave curtains on indoor resting mosquitoes in Kadibo division, Western Kenya.

Background: Use of insecticide treated bednets (ITNs) was a breakthrough in the fight against malaria. However, ITNs are only effective when properly used. Recent reports indicate low compliance in ITN usage and changes in biting times of malaria vectors with early and late biting cases recorded when people are not sleeping under their nets. Hence, there is a need to develop methods to supplement or replace the use of ITNs for malaria vector control. A field trial was conducted to investigate the effect and longevity of prototypes of long lasting impregnated UV protected eave nets, curtains and door hangers (fully screened houses), compared to houses with bednets only, in traditional East African houses. Materials and methods: A randomised controlled trial was carried out in the Ahero rice irrigation scheme in Nyando district, Western Kenya. Eighty houses with open eaves were randomly selected. Forty of these houses were fully screened (FSH+LLINs) with long lasting insecticide-treated nets/curtains used to screen the eaves, windows and doors. The FSH materials were produced with anti-UV additives. The other 40 houses served as controls. Long lasting insecticide-treated bednets (LLINs) were suspended over all sleeping areas in the control and intervention houses. Indoor resting Anopheles mosquitoes were collected using pyrethrum spray catches (PSC) during both dry and wet seasons. Indoor population densities of anophelines were compared between intervention (FSH+LLINs) and control (LLINs) houses. Loss of insecticide (deltamethrin) was compared after 12 and 24 months for both the FSH materials and LLINs through bioassays and chemical analyses. Results: In the FSH+LLINs houses densities of indoor resting Anopheles funestus and An. arabiensis were reduced by 82% (RR=0.18, 95% CI 0.09-0.36, P<0.0001) and 70% (RR=0.30, 95% CI 0.15-0.58, P<0.0001), respectively. No significant difference was recorded for indoor resting Culex spp. (RR=0.95, 95% CI 0.48-1.86, P=0.8). The population of indoor resting bloodfed An. arabiensis and An. funestus was reduced by 72% (RR=0.22, 95% CI 0.09-0.51, P<0.0001) and 84% (RR=0.16, 95% CI 0.07-0.33, P<0.0001) in the FSH+LLINs houses and LLIN houses, respectively. Insecticide loss in eave nets did not depend on the side of the house where the nets were placed. The eave nets showed little loss of bio efficacy over the 12-24 months period. Conclusions: The study revealed that the use of insecticide-treated nets on the eaves and windows combined with door hangers largely impeded entrance of anopheline mosquitoes into houses and can be used to compliment LLINs for household protection. The eave nets were suspended from wood structures near the eave and remained in place when walls were re-plastered. The nets are therefore not depending on daily compliance behaviour and provide protection for the entire household.

Cost of integrated vector control with improved sanitation and road infrastructure coupled with the use of slow-release Bacillus sphaericus granules in a tropical urban setting.

A field test of integrated vector control was conducted in a tropical urban setting with a combination of a floating, slow-release, granular formulation of Bacillus sphaericus and environmental engineering measures (renovation of roads, collective water pumps, and cesspool lids). The targets were Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles gambiae in the two biggest towns of Burkina Faso (West Africa). Within the intervention zone, water pumping stations were improved and the surroundings drained to prevent the accumulation of stagnant water. Roads were leveled and given either simple gutters on each side or a concrete channel on one side to drain runoff water. Garbage containers were installed to provide an alternative to the drainage channels for waste disposal. Septic tanks were modified so that they could be emptied without destroying their lid. This study showed that it is possible to implement mosquito control in a tropical urban environment with teams of young people rapidly trained to apply a biological larvicide without any tools other than an iron bar to lift cesspool lids. Environmental improvements were initially costly, but demanded little subsequent expenditure. Local inhabitants' committees were mobilized to provide people with information and monitor the efficacy of the measures. Compared with what people spent individually on mosquito prevention and malaria medicine, these measures were not expensive, but many expected the community to pay for them from existing taxes, e.g., for water treatment and disposal. The necessary funding and logistics require a municipal organization with neighborhood support, if the measures are to be effective.

Strength of bed nets as function of denier, knitting pattern, texturizing and polymer.

BACKGROUND: Bursting strength is a standard method for evaluating mosquito net strength. This article suggests that tension strength with one grab and one hook better represent how holes are generated in bed nets in real life. METHODS: Measurements of bursting strength and tension strengths in the two directions are analysed for eight model nets created for the study. The nets were made in the most commonly used denier (75 and 100 D) and mesh (156 holes/inch(2)) for multifilament polyester yarns, texturized or not, and with 4 or 6 sided holes. All were made from one polyester quality. Data was arranged in a randomized, complete block design and analysed for significant variables and their interactions. Data was then subjected to regression analyses using net square metre weight as a weighting factor with stepwise removal of variables. This revealed how the four textile variables interacted and allowed for making predictions for the strength of commercial nets in polyester or polyethylene. RESULTS: For the model nets, higher denier provided higher bursting strength and tension strengths, texturizing weakened nets and four-sided holes were stronger than six-sided holes. Even when compensating for square metre weight, 100 D nets are stronger than 75 D nets. Results for the commercial polyester net nets are less clear, probably because of different qualities of polyester. Tensile strength: a 75 denier net knitted tightly to provide the same square metre weight as a standard 100 denier net therefore does not obtain the same strength. Polyethylene nets are made of mono-fibre yarns and, therefore, have higher tension strength in both directions than multifilament polyester nets. For bursting strength results overlap for 100 denier yarns of both yarn types. As a class, commercial polyethylene nets are stronger than commercial polyester net whatever method is used for evaluation. CONCLUSION: Tension strength measured in the length and width directions of the net using one hook and one clamp provide new relevant data as this method more closely imitates the cause of tear holes in nets as they occur in real life use. Using this methodology, the commercial monofilament yarn polyethylene nets are significantly stronger than the commercial multifilament polyester nets. This test method should be applied for nets used for years in the field.